The Seven C Principals

The Seven C Principals To compose effective written or oral messages, you must apply certain communication principles. These principles provide guideline for choice of content and style of presentation, adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message. These principles are not only limited to a sentence level, they are also applicable to all forms of communications, from mere utterances and sentences to complete documents or presentations. To some extent the principles overlap because they are based on a common concern for the audience, whether that audience consists of listeners or readers. These principles are called . WHY THEY ARE CALLED 7CS Seven Cs are the seven most useful qualities of effective communication. They are called Seven Cs because name of each of these qualities starts with a C, and they are seven in numbers, therefore they are called Seven Cs. Although they are just seven small words starting with a letter C but their importance for effective business communication is same as the importance of seven seas for the world. The Seven Cs are as follows: 1- Correctness 2- Completeness 3- Conciseness 4- Clarity 5- Creativeness 6- Courtesy 7- Consideration 1) Completeness Message Receiver- either listener or reader, desire complete information to their question. e.g. suppose you are working with multinational company who is engaging with engineering goods, like A.C. Now let say one of your major customer wants some technical information regarding thermostat (because he wants to convey the same to the end users). In this case you have to provide him complete information in a short span of time. If possible, provide him some extra information which he does not know, in this way you can maintain a good business relation with him, otherwise he may switch to another company. Five Ws: One way to make your message complete is to answer the five Ws. WHO? WHAT? WHEN? WHERE? WHY? The five question method is useful when you write requests, announcements, or other informative messages. For instance, to order (request) merchandise, make clear WHAT you want, WHEN u need it, WHERE it is to be sent. 2) Conciseness Conciseness means convey the message by using fewest words. Conciseness is the prerequisite to effective business communication. As you know that all businessmen have very short time. Hence a concise message saves the time and expenses for both the parties. How to achieve the conciseness? For achieving the conciseness you have to consider the following. 1. Avoid wordy expression 2.Include only relevant material 3.Avoid unnecessary repetition. Avoid Wordy Expression E.g. Wordy: at this time. Instead of at this time you can just use only a concise word: NOW, Always try to use To the point Approach in business scenario perspective. Include only relevant information à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Always try to provide only relevant information to the receiver of the message. Lets say one of your customers requested à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ For clients of the company o in reply you should provide simply list of clients at the panel of your company. o No need to provide detailed business information about client at all. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Observe the following suggestions to Include only relevant information. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Stick to the purpose of message Delete irrelevant words Avoid long introduction, unnecessary explanation etc. Get to the important point concisely. Avoid un-necessary Repetition Sometimes repetition is necessary for focusing some special issue. But when the same thing is said without two or three reasons, the message become wordy and boring. Thats why try to avoid Un-necessary repetition. Some ways to eliminate unnecessary words Use shorter name after you have mentioned the long once. e.g. Spectrum communications Private limited use spectrum. Use pronouns or initials E.g. Instead of world trade organization use WTO or You can use IT for Information Technology. (Keeping in views that receiver knows about these terms) 3) Consideration Consideration means To consider the receivers Interest/Intention. It is very important in effective communication while writing a message you should always keep in mind your target group consideration is very important C among all the seven Cs. Three specific ways to indicate consideration à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Focus on you instead of I or We à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Show audience benefit or interest of the receiver à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Emphasize positive, pleasant facts. Using you help you, but over use lead a negative reaction. Always write a message in such a way how audience should be benefited from it. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ We attitude: I am delighted to announce that we will extend to make shopping more. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ You attitude: You will be able to shop in the evening with the extended hours. Readers may react positively when benefit are shown to them. Always try to address his/her need and want. Always show/write to readerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ what has been done so far as his/her query is concerned. And always avoid that his/her need and wants. Always avoid that has not been done so far. 4) Concreteness It means that message should be specific instead of general. Misunderstanding of words creates problems for both parties (sender and receiver). When you talk to your client always use facts and figures instead of generic or irrelevant information. The following guidelines should help you to achieve the Concreteness. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Use specific facts and figures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ choose image building words e.g General He is very intelligent student of class and stood first in the class. e.g. Alis GPA in B.Sc Electrical Engineering 2k3-f session was 3.95/4.0; he stood first in his class. Always write on a very solid ground. It should definitely create good image as well. 5) Clarity Accurately is purpose of clarity In effective business communication the message should be very much clear. So that reader can understand it easily. You should always choose precise words. Always choose familiar and easy words. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs. In business communication always use precise words rather longer statements. If you have a choice between long words and shorter one, always use shorter one. You should try your level best to use familiar/easy to understand words so that your reader will quickly understand it. Familiar Next familiar words 1-after subsequent 2-home domicile 3-for example e.g. 4-pay remuneration 5-invoice statement for payments 6) Courtesy Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of courtesy; be aware of your message receiver. True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their feelings. Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertions of please and Thank you. Although Appling socially accepted manners is a form of courtesy. Rather, it is politeness that grows out respect and concern for others. Courteous communication generates a special tone in their writing and speaking. How to generate a Courteous Tone? The following are suggestions for generating a courteous tone: Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative. Use expressions that show respect for the others Choose nondiscriminatory expressions be sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful and Appreciative Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are common cause of discourtesy. Avoid expression like those in the left hand column below; rephrase them as shown in the right-hand column. Tactless, Blunt More Tactful Stupid letter; I cant understand I should understand it, as there is no confusing word in this letter, could you please explain it once again? Its your fault, you did not properly Sometimes my wording is not precise; let me try gain read my latest FAX Thoughtfulness and Appreciation Writers who send cordial, courteous messages of deserved congratulations and appreciation (to a person inside outside) help to build goodwill. The value of goodwill or public esteem for the firm may be worth thousands of dollars. 7) Correctness At the core of correctness are the proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. However, message must be perfect grammatically and mechanically. The term correctness, as applied to business messages also mean three characteristics o Use the right level of language o Check the accuracy of figures, facts and words o Maintain acceptable writing mechanics. Use the right Level of Language We suggest that there are three level of language 2. Formal 3. informal 4. Substandard. Take a quick guess: what kind of writing is associated with each level? What is the style of each? Formal and Informal Words Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing: doctoral dissertations, scholarly, legal documents, top-level government agreements and other material where formality is demanded. Informal writing is more characteristic of business writing. Here you use words that are short, well-known and conversational as in this comparison list: More Formal Less Formal Participate Join Endeavor try Ascertain find out Utilize Use Interrogate question. Substandard Language Avoid substandard language. Using correct words, incorrect grammar, faulty pronunciation all suggest as inability to use good English. Some examples follow: Substandard More Acceptable Aint isnt,arent Cant hardly can hardly Aim to proving aim to prove Desirous to desirous of Stoled stolen. Facts and Figures Accuracy Check Accuracy of Facts, Figures and words it is impossible to convey meaning precisely, through words, from the head of the sender to a receiver. Our goal is to be as precise as possible, which means checking and double-checking and double-checking to ensure that the figures, facts and words you use are correct. A good check of your data is to have another person read and comment on the validity of the material à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Figures and facts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Verify your statistical data à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Double-check your totals à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Avoid guessing at laws that have an impact on you, the sender and your à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Have someone else read your message if the topic involves data. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Determine whether a fact has changed over time. Proper Use of Confusing Words! Our Language (Any) is constantly changing. In fact, even dictionaries can not keep up with rapid change in our language. The following words often confusing in usage: A, An use a before consonants and consonants sounds or a long u sound. Use an before vowels. Accept, except accept is a verb and means to receive. Except is a verb or a preposition and relates to Omitting or leaving out. Anxious, eager Anxious implies worry, eager conveys keen desire CONCLUSION These 7Cs help a person to compose a message in such a way that brings back the positive feedback from the receivers. Thats why it is advice able for everyone to understand and apply these 7Cs whether he is a teacher, doctor, businessman or a student.

Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education

Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education ABSTRACT The question of whether different family structures affect the educational achievement of children is one that has been debated over a vast amount of years and is still under scrutiny today. This theoretical study aims to contribute to our understandings of the links between single parent family structures and the affect it has on adolescents education (12 17 year olds). It particularly gives emphasis to single parent families, however also considers other family structures, such as, families that consist of two parents, step families, etc, which enables comparison between the data and gives an illustration of the educational differences between single parent family households and other family structures. This comparison has facilitated an analysis on positive or negative effects single parent families can possess on education. Lastly the study assesses the data available between educational attainment of adolescents from single-mother families and adolescents form single-father fam ilies. Research data has been collated from secondary sourced materials about single parent family structures and education, which were mainly in the form of journal articles all written by credible authors over the past 15 years. These statues of the sources used that influence the establishment of knowledge and policy are highly credible, as they are acknowledged by the accredited organisations that have allowed the primary research to be conducted and the data published. An analytical review has been conducted on all the research data examined and enabled the following findings; although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly, not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH PROCESS Prior to starting this study, a comprehensive and detailed research process around the area of interest on single parent families was undertaken, to provide the core foundations of the study. It was necessary to engage with a wide variety of secondary sourced materials, which needed an extensive and analytical review, in order to carry a successful theoretical study on the chosen title; A Critical Review: The Educational Performance of Adolescents from Single Parent Families. There was a vast amount of literature and different methods of conduct in the way the information needed could be obtained, therefore a search strategy was devised [Refer to Appendix 1 Research Journal Book; Page 5], which included a clear and logical plan to collating the necessary research data. The starting point for the research process was a search for relevant literature on the Manchester Metropolitan University library website. This enabled access to the basic electronic books, articles and on-line journals to provide the basic background reading around the topic under analysis. Later, a search for various journal articles that were not available on-line was carried out and copies were made of the relevant ones that could help with the study. Also, after conducting a library search on the books required, the ones that were unavailable were reserved for later, and once obtained, it was necessary to read them. Comprehensive notes were made of the issues acknowledged around single parenthood and the information perceived to be of high significance. Although, now a lot of background knowledge and data on the subject matter was established, it was noticed that the materials used were not very contemporary, as some of the books and articles were published over 30 years ago. T herefore it was essential to engage with various online articles, including, The Times and journal databases, such as Demos to allow an analysis of a wider range of contemporary materials on the topic of interest. After collating and examining all the research attained, the materials were synthesised to the most relevant ones that were produced over the past 15 years and those that were published by credited authors and organisations, to allow the study to hold validity. In addition, a timeline was created, which consisted of dates as to when certain tasks and research would be carried out, in order to ensure the research tasks and study was completed before the submission deadline. After the research process was complete, it was officially time to commence in a detailed critical analysis and evaluation on the role of single parent families and adolescents educational attainment. CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION Research Interest The nature of this research is to find out whether the educational performances of adolescents (12 17 year olds) living in single parent households is different (better or worse) to those adolescents living in other family structures. The area of research interest is based around single parent families, particularly in relation to education and how children growing up in one parent households can affect their educational attainment. The focus is specifically on adolescents, as it has been argued by some practitioners who have studied single parent families that; adolescence in particular is a crucial time in which to study school success because educational achievement in the teen years has a direct influence on indicators of overall attainment, such as high school graduation and college attendance (Heard, 2007; p.320). The curiosity for this subject matter has stemmed from an individual standpoint, through personal experiences of being raised in a single-mother household, and holding positive educational achievements, as average academic grades have always been met. However, there seemed to be negative expectations from people in society (teachers, extended family members, etc), who considered individuals from single parent households to be less intellectually capable and to perform less well in education than those children from stable two parent families. Hence, the nature of this study and the hoped outcome after the review of literature is; that adolescents are often stereotyped because of their family structure which may have no or little relevance to their educational performance. In the process of conducting the research required, a personal interest on this topic area has developed furthermore, because a lot of different and altering views on single parenthood were found, which were not considered at first. For example, different explanations were discovered on how a boys educational achievement is affected when he is living in a single-mother household, which can be significantly different to him living in a single-father household. As previously stated, the research was conducted by collating relevant research data on the topic area and reviewing each article and information in depth to allow a detailed analysis of the main contentious issues, which included; the notion that adolescents from single parent households perform less well in education than those living with two parents, single parent families have a lack of funds to invest in educational resources, boys are adversely affected than girls from single parent households, boys growing up without a father are more likely to do less well in education, same with girls without their mother, and, lastly, the idea that living in a single parent family consequences very little parental involvement in the adolescents education. After underlining the main contentious issues, a number of 3 questions were formulated to guide the study and allow a successful analysis and evaluation of the secondary research data. These comprised; are adolescents from single parent families at a disadvantage to those of two parents in educational achievement? Secondly, are there any similarities or differences of the educational performance of adolescents between single-mother and single-father households? Lastly, do single-parents have little involvement in their childrens educational attainment? Report Structure The structure of the report firstly consists of an abstract to give the reader an insight to the study and what it deals with. Chapter 1 consists of the research process undertaken to allow the analysis of the research data. The section outlines the necessary steps taken when collating the research materials and provides the reader with a notion of the type of primary research previously conducted on the topic of single parent families. Chapter 2 is the introductory chapter to clarify the nature of the research. It includes information about where the curiosity in this subject matter stemmed from, the main contentious issues discovered from the secondary source materials, the questions developed to guide the study and lastly, an overview of the main conclusion drawn. Chapter 3 compromise a critical analysis on reports identified that deal with research and statistics conducted by governmental bodies, including the Institute of Education. It evaluates the effectiveness of the secondary sourced materials used to complete the study and takes into account the strengths and weakness of the materials analysed; also indentifying the gaps within the topic area under scrutiny. The analysis on these reports allows the subject matter to be put into a contemporary context. Chapter 4 consists of an analysis and critique of academic literature conducted by various authors and publishers. This part identifies other issues, ideas and competing theories related to children from single parent households and enables further arguments to be constructed. It also analyses the sociological data collection and analysis methods used to obtain data to form the studies on single parent households. Chapter 5 deals with an examination of the previous sociological theories devised around single parent families and also the contemporary ones. This analysis allows an insight to theorists opinions and explanations of the differences in educational attainment. Chapter 6 includes the addition of a comprehensive conclusion, compromising a brief summary of the research and independent conclusions related to the study are offered. This section allows an understanding of personal arguments and ideas made to contribute towards the concepts of the study and competing theories or interpretations. It also consists of a section that outlines the future work and study that can be implemented to develop the study of single parent families. Chapter 7, the last section contains a personal reflection on the engagement of the research conducted. It includes how and what has been learnt throughout the course of the study, as well as, how personal interests have been impacted and changed as a result of the research process and the completion of the study. Main Conclusions The critical review has drawn together the evidence on adolescents educational attainment from single parent family households. There is evidence to show that although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent families and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. The analysis has also exposed that family functioning and economic factors have a higher influence than the type of family structure on an adolescents educational success. Furthermore, various sociological theories have been devised on the matter of single parent families, which can be used in context with the topic in hand. Lastly, research indicates, the lack of educational success of adolescents being brought up in single parent families is not limited to one cause only; a lot of altering factors play apart. CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF REPORTS There are a number of reports published by governmental bodies, such as, the Institute of Education, that deal with research and statistics established around single parent families and education. This chapter compromises a critical analysis of 5 major reports published in the last 15 years, which are all acknowledged by governmental bodies. Causes of Single Parenthood Over the space of a single generation the number of people marrying has halved, the number divorcing has trebled and the proportion of children born outside marriage has quadrupled (Lewis, 2001; p.37). It can be suggested, that all of the above contribute to the factors related to the causes of single parenthood. The context of this statement has been assembled from data provided by the Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) from the 1970s to the year 2000. However Lewis (2001) fails to look at contemporary data and statistics around the subject matter, which could alter the statement he has made. National statistics actually declare that the number of marriages in England and Wales steadily rose between 2001 and 2004 (Office for National Statistics, 2010), therefore although the number of marriages may have halved over the space of a single generation (Lewis, 2001; p.37), Lewis (2001) does not look at the rise of marriages in certain periods and does not offer any rationalisation for such trends [Refer to Appendix 2 Statistics Graph; Page 48]. In 2006 in Great Britain, 25% of dependent children were found to be living in single parent households with little or no contact with the second parent (Mooney et al, 2009). This figure holds credible status as it was obtained from the National Office for Statistics, however Mooney et al (2009) are unsuccessful in explaining how little or no contact is determined. There is no thesis or evidence of chapters that attempt to make clear how they approached and justified their declaration made, therefore making it questionable. Lewis (2001), Mooney et al (2009), amongst others also offer alternative explanations to single parenthood that are recognised within the majority of the reports under analysis, which will be addressed throughout the course of this study. Effects of Single Parenthood The levels of single parenthood are continuously rising; the effect that this has on the adolescents living with a single parent is contested. Some argue there are no adverse consequences, whilst others suggest that there are clear implications for the adolescents, arguing; evidence indicates unequivocally that those children whose parents separate are at significantly greater risk than those whose parents remain together, for a wide range of adverse outcomes in social, psychological, and physical development (Pryor and Rodgers, 2001; p.73). These two positions offered are both backed up with evidence, firstly showing the consequences for adolescents, mainly pointing at the fact that there is a considerable difference in educational achievement between those individuals from single parent families and those from nuclear family structures[1]. This evidence is mainly shown through the comparison of statistical data; those who were brought up by single parents were almost twice as likely to lack formal qualifications (Kiernan, 1997; p.9). Again, the contradicting argument also uses similar procedures, such as statistical data to illustrate the evidence that argues individuals form single parent families are not negatively affected; the difference between children from intact and non-intact families is a small one, and the majority of children will not be adversely affected (Mooney et al, 2009; p.3). Although both of these grand claims provide evidence to back up their statements, they are not a 100 per cent warranted as gaps within their claims still remain. For example, Mooney et al (2009) acknowledge that there is a small difference between single parent and nuclear family structures and claim the majority of individuals from single parent families are not affected. However they fail to recognise the small proportion of individuals who are affected, forgetting to address the reasons to how and why only a minority of adolescents from single parent families suffer the alleged adverse consequences. Separation or Divorce It is argued that adolescents whose parents separate have the double probability of experiencing long-term negative outcomes in education than adolescents from nuclear family structures (Mooney et al, 2009). The long-term studies that have been conducted to show this include the analysis of statistical data throughout a certain period of time and longitudinal studies, monitoring adolescents from single parent households over a course of their lives. There is no specific definition of the long-term outcomes, and studies have taken place over a variety of periods, including, 5, 10 and 20 years. There is also no precise measurement of a negative outcome, they tend to be the general opinions of the researcher or author rather than a factor defined through research or study; there are various chapters throughout all the reports that constantly refer to the negative child outcomes following parental separation (Mooney et al, 2009; p.13), however there is no mentioning of the measurements u sed to define these negative outcomes. A variety of research studies have indicated that adolescents who witness the breakdown of their own parents marriage in comparison to those who have not, hold lower educational qualifications, lower part-time or full-time incomes and more expected to be unemployed in later life (Kiernan, 1997). This expectancy is reasonably vindicated as Kiernan (1997) uses various statistical data from England to compare the educational achievements and employment roles of adults aged 33 who had been raised by single parents to those who had not. From her study, she found that there were a lower percentage of adults who experienced their parents separation than those brought up in nuclear family structures to commit to further educational studies. Also, there was a higher percentage of adults brought up by single parents who were unemployed than those brought up by both parents (Kiernan, 1997). Although, she provides some statistical evidence to indicate those from single parent families possess lo w levels of educational attainment, Kiernan (1997) does not take into consideration the fact that her statistics show; there was a higher proportion of individuals brought up by single parents holding O-Level qualifications in comparison to those who lived in a nuclear family structure [Refer to Appendix 3 Table of Statistics; Page 49]. She fails to provide an explanation for this statistic and in a sense seems to ignore this odd occurrence. The ignorance of this statistic suggests Kiernan (1997) is judging and concluding in a manner that does not necessarily match the evidence, which may indicate towards a personal or professional agenda. This personal agenda may simply be stereotypical views of those from single parent families, which can include the expectancy of academic failure and low employment prospects. Also, teenage girls who have witnessed their parental divorce or separation have a higher probability than their peers to begin early sexual relations, to cohabit at early ages and commit to teenage pregnancies. To start early sexual relations and conceive children young is one reason why a vast percentage of adolescent girls from single parent families perform less well in education than those living in nuclear family structures. The stresses of sexual relationships and pregnancy can often leave very little or no time to focus on study, commonly resulting in teenage mothers leaving education early and gaining little qualifications (Kiernan, 1997). Although Kiernan (1997) makes such claims, she does not provide any evidence to justify them. There is no evidence of statistical data showing that teenage pregnancies are the result of being brought up by a single parent and no mention of any imperative measurements used to suggests such outcomes can occur; thus her explanations lack in v alidity and can be contested in numerous ways. Economical Factors One economical factor that is argued to be common in single parenthood is the issue of living in poverty. In comparison to nuclear families, single parents tend to be considerably financially worse and statistics show 70% of single parents live in poverty (Evans et al, 2004). This is an accredited statistic obtained from the Department of Work and Pensions, which gives an insight of the scale of financial difficulties faced by single parents. Poverty has been identified as one major factor that affects educational attainment at schools and used to explain the low educational performances of adolescents from single parent households, as a vast number of children living in single parent family structures are only supported by one parental income or through welfare benefits. In Britain in the 1990s, approximately 80% of single mothers relied on governmental benefits to support themselves and their children (Kiernan, 1997). Again, this statistic is credited and provides a sound context t o the argument being made, however it is not a contemporary piece of research. Today in modern Britain a lot of people are facing financial difficulties because of different factors that can affect educational attainment, regardless of the type of family structure an individual is from. For example, in the current financial climate and the issues of the recession, many people are finding it difficult to maintain jobs and fund their familys educational needs, such as, university tuition fees, college expenses, etc; therefore adolescents from all family structures may have a lower educational attainment. Consequently there are more individuals today relying on governmental benefits to support their financial needs; from the start of 2008, 800,000 individuals were claiming Job Seekers Allowance, then rose rapidly in 2009, where there was 1.5 million claimants (National Office for Statistics, 2010: Refer to Appendix 4 Statistics Article; Page 50). Thus, Kiernans (1997) examination on f inance does not give a valid insight to the contemporary issues affecting educational achievement. Also, Kiernan (1997) suggests that single parents do not have the financial support from the second parent without any suitable evidence. Conversely this is not necessarily true, if parents have separated or divorced, the second parent is obligated to contribute to the finance of his/her family if any dependent children are involved; therefore although some single parents may face financial strain, there are others who still receive financial help from their ex-partners. Financial difficulty increases the chances of other variables connected with negative outcomes for the adolescents, including; poor nutrition, inadequate housing, health issues and limited access to educational resources. Adolescents with poor nutrition will find it significantly difficult to concentrate at school during lessons, limiting their educational performances. Evidence shows a balanced diet and the consumption of adequate vitamins and nutrients can boost the concentration levels of pupils at school, making them more alert and attentive during class sessions (Welsh et all, 2004). This evidence offered is of widespread knowledge and supported by nutritional specialists, such as, the British Nutrition Foundation (Stanner et al, 2010). Poor nutrition can also lead to various long-term health problems, including Anorexia, Cardiovascular Disease, etc, which may require adolescents taking a lot of time off school compared to those not living in poverty, therefore, again, limiting their educational performances (Mooney et al, 2009). A viable argument is made here, however there is a lack of evidence to support the suggestion that these health problems is a definite explanation as to why adolescents from single parent families can do poorly in education. Health problems can lead to taking time off school, however there is no reasonable clarification to why it specifically affects those from single parent families; Anorexia and Cardiovascular Disease can affect any individual, not just those who lack a balanced diet and may be living in single parent families; the causes of Anorexia range from a variety of factors, including, the media, social pressure and genetics (Russell, 2007). Inadequate housing conditions may make it difficult for adolescents to concentrate and complete coursework at home when required, resulting in another limitation in educational attainment (Mooney et al, 2009). Another viable argument, however, again, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim; it is not sufficient enough to suggest inadequate housing only affects those of single parent families, move valid knowledge and research is required to support such claims. Furthermore, it is contested; limited funds can often neglect the extra requirements of educational resources and materials to help during courses. For example, single parents may not be able to afford home computers, books, sportswear, etc that assist success in schools. Without the access to these resources adolescents from single parents are at a disadvantage in educational attainment compared to those adolescents living in nuclear families, supported by both parental incomes, thus an explanation for the questionable differences in educational achievement (Mooney et al, 2009). Although this is an explanation, Mooney et al (2009) fail to acknowledge the initiatives and support available for all family structures to overcome barriers when accessing educational resources. For example, public libraries are available to borrow books instead of buying them, libraries also facilitate free access to computers and schools also provide support free access to educational materials. Therefore the claim that adolescents from single parents do not have the access to resources available in order to perform well in education is not credible and lacks knowledge of contemporary support. In addition, it is also argued, adolescents living with single parents may leave education early to gain employment to help with the financial circumstances, or work long shifts whilst still at school to fund their own wants and needs, which can ultimately result in low educational attainment. Low qualifications and an early entry into employment can increase the prospects of low occupational achievement, little income, unemployment and state dependency (Kiernan, 1997). This argument is supported with evidence, as Kiernan (1997) uses statistical data to show that a lot of adolescents form single parent families do enter early employment to assist their familys financial needs. However, she has no evidence to suggest that an early entry into employment can increase the chances of low occupational achievement, this is an assumption made, that without further education individuals cannot succeed in the labour market. However this is not necessarily accurate, there are individuals in the media who have excelled within the labour market without an education to college or degree level, for example, Sir Allen Sugar, a successful business entrepreneur (BBC, 2009). Although there is a certain lack of acknowledgement of various factors when arguing poverty is a major factor of adolescents academic failure from single parent families, there has been a study conducted of 2 nuclear families in America who experienced a substantial decrease in income. This identified that the financial pressure lead to increased depression in both parents, conflicts throughout the family, behaviour changes in the adolescents and a drop in their educational success in schools and in exams. (Conger et al, 1992). Therefore, there is some valid evidence to associate single parent poverty with educational success. Never the less, consideration must be given to the fact that educational failure in single parenthood is not only limited to financial strain. Social Factors The single parent family structure is frequently associated with social factors, such as a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact between adolescents and their non-residential parent. This can affect a teenagers educational attainment due to the lack of support from both parents to perform well in school (Kiernan, 1997). Although this statement is made, there is no substantial evidence or research conducted to support the argument. There is the assumption that teenagers will automatically have a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact with their second parent. However, this is may not be the case, parents after separation can still have daily contact with their children on a regular basis; thus the support from both parents to do well in education may not decline. Misleading conclusions are being made, which suggest the author may hold biased views on this subject matter. It can be argued, single parents providing childcare may also have limited time and energy they can dedicate to their children, particularly if longer hours of paid employment is necessary to maintain financial stability. These decreases in parental resources, for example, help with homework, support and attention they can offer to their children, can increase the possibility of educational failure (Kiernan, 1997). Although the long working hours may have an impact on parental time available, there is no verification that declares a lack of parental time has a definite effect on educational attainment. Kiernan (1997) also ignores social networks that can provide support with educational attainment, such as, family, friends, neighbours, relatives, etc. It has been argued by many that social networks and support is crucial for the development of individuals intellectually, emotionally and socially; strong networks allow the foundations to achieving success in academic and occupational careers (Hooyman and Kiak, 2008). Psychological Factors Amongst these social and economical explanations are psychological explanatory factors that attempt to clarify the educational differences between teenagers from single parent and nuclear family structures. It is argued that the notion of family stress during bereavement, divorce, separation, etc, can provide a vast amount of strain on the children, which can add onto the predominant stresses of educational attainment. A number of studies have exposed that parental conflict during separation can have a harmful impact on the adolescents well-being. This can result to lack of concentration during school class sessions, less motivation to complete designated assignments and a lack of class participation, which usually lead to academic failure (Kiernan, 1997). There is substantial evidence to suggest stress can be related to educational achievement and affect academic results obtained; for instance there have been various observational and longitudinal studies that have discovered trauma tic stress can lead to a decline in academic success (Hall, 2000). Whilst Kiernan (1997) takes into consideration the stresses of parental separation, she fails to acknowledge the relief some marital breakdowns can have; for example, one where the child or partner was suffering physical abuse. In this situation a positive outcome could occur in educational attainment rather than the negativities of academic failure. Also research suggests that the parental ability to recover from distress of bereavement, separation and divorce can affect the childrens ability to adapt to new changes. Effective communication and frequent contact between the adolescents and both the resident and non-resident parents are important in assisting teenagers to adjust and adapt to change. If change is not accepted and the adolescents do not adapt, studies have discovered that there is a higher possibility of poor educational outcomes for teenagers from separated families than those from intact ones. The distress teenagers may face fro Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education ABSTRACT The question of whether different family structures affect the educational achievement of children is one that has been debated over a vast amount of years and is still under scrutiny today. This theoretical study aims to contribute to our understandings of the links between single parent family structures and the affect it has on adolescents education (12 17 year olds). It particularly gives emphasis to single parent families, however also considers other family structures, such as, families that consist of two parents, step families, etc, which enables comparison between the data and gives an illustration of the educational differences between single parent family households and other family structures. This comparison has facilitated an analysis on positive or negative effects single parent families can possess on education. Lastly the study assesses the data available between educational attainment of adolescents from single-mother families and adolescents form single-father fam ilies. Research data has been collated from secondary sourced materials about single parent family structures and education, which were mainly in the form of journal articles all written by credible authors over the past 15 years. These statues of the sources used that influence the establishment of knowledge and policy are highly credible, as they are acknowledged by the accredited organisations that have allowed the primary research to be conducted and the data published. An analytical review has been conducted on all the research data examined and enabled the following findings; although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly, not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH PROCESS Prior to starting this study, a comprehensive and detailed research process around the area of interest on single parent families was undertaken, to provide the core foundations of the study. It was necessary to engage with a wide variety of secondary sourced materials, which needed an extensive and analytical review, in order to carry a successful theoretical study on the chosen title; A Critical Review: The Educational Performance of Adolescents from Single Parent Families. There was a vast amount of literature and different methods of conduct in the way the information needed could be obtained, therefore a search strategy was devised [Refer to Appendix 1 Research Journal Book; Page 5], which included a clear and logical plan to collating the necessary research data. The starting point for the research process was a search for relevant literature on the Manchester Metropolitan University library website. This enabled access to the basic electronic books, articles and on-line journals to provide the basic background reading around the topic under analysis. Later, a search for various journal articles that were not available on-line was carried out and copies were made of the relevant ones that could help with the study. Also, after conducting a library search on the books required, the ones that were unavailable were reserved for later, and once obtained, it was necessary to read them. Comprehensive notes were made of the issues acknowledged around single parenthood and the information perceived to be of high significance. Although, now a lot of background knowledge and data on the subject matter was established, it was noticed that the materials used were not very contemporary, as some of the books and articles were published over 30 years ago. T herefore it was essential to engage with various online articles, including, The Times and journal databases, such as Demos to allow an analysis of a wider range of contemporary materials on the topic of interest. After collating and examining all the research attained, the materials were synthesised to the most relevant ones that were produced over the past 15 years and those that were published by credited authors and organisations, to allow the study to hold validity. In addition, a timeline was created, which consisted of dates as to when certain tasks and research would be carried out, in order to ensure the research tasks and study was completed before the submission deadline. After the research process was complete, it was officially time to commence in a detailed critical analysis and evaluation on the role of single parent families and adolescents educational attainment. CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION Research Interest The nature of this research is to find out whether the educational performances of adolescents (12 17 year olds) living in single parent households is different (better or worse) to those adolescents living in other family structures. The area of research interest is based around single parent families, particularly in relation to education and how children growing up in one parent households can affect their educational attainment. The focus is specifically on adolescents, as it has been argued by some practitioners who have studied single parent families that; adolescence in particular is a crucial time in which to study school success because educational achievement in the teen years has a direct influence on indicators of overall attainment, such as high school graduation and college attendance (Heard, 2007; p.320). The curiosity for this subject matter has stemmed from an individual standpoint, through personal experiences of being raised in a single-mother household, and holding positive educational achievements, as average academic grades have always been met. However, there seemed to be negative expectations from people in society (teachers, extended family members, etc), who considered individuals from single parent households to be less intellectually capable and to perform less well in education than those children from stable two parent families. Hence, the nature of this study and the hoped outcome after the review of literature is; that adolescents are often stereotyped because of their family structure which may have no or little relevance to their educational performance. In the process of conducting the research required, a personal interest on this topic area has developed furthermore, because a lot of different and altering views on single parenthood were found, which were not considered at first. For example, different explanations were discovered on how a boys educational achievement is affected when he is living in a single-mother household, which can be significantly different to him living in a single-father household. As previously stated, the research was conducted by collating relevant research data on the topic area and reviewing each article and information in depth to allow a detailed analysis of the main contentious issues, which included; the notion that adolescents from single parent households perform less well in education than those living with two parents, single parent families have a lack of funds to invest in educational resources, boys are adversely affected than girls from single parent households, boys growing up without a father are more likely to do less well in education, same with girls without their mother, and, lastly, the idea that living in a single parent family consequences very little parental involvement in the adolescents education. After underlining the main contentious issues, a number of 3 questions were formulated to guide the study and allow a successful analysis and evaluation of the secondary research data. These comprised; are adolescents from single parent families at a disadvantage to those of two parents in educational achievement? Secondly, are there any similarities or differences of the educational performance of adolescents between single-mother and single-father households? Lastly, do single-parents have little involvement in their childrens educational attainment? Report Structure The structure of the report firstly consists of an abstract to give the reader an insight to the study and what it deals with. Chapter 1 consists of the research process undertaken to allow the analysis of the research data. The section outlines the necessary steps taken when collating the research materials and provides the reader with a notion of the type of primary research previously conducted on the topic of single parent families. Chapter 2 is the introductory chapter to clarify the nature of the research. It includes information about where the curiosity in this subject matter stemmed from, the main contentious issues discovered from the secondary source materials, the questions developed to guide the study and lastly, an overview of the main conclusion drawn. Chapter 3 compromise a critical analysis on reports identified that deal with research and statistics conducted by governmental bodies, including the Institute of Education. It evaluates the effectiveness of the secondary sourced materials used to complete the study and takes into account the strengths and weakness of the materials analysed; also indentifying the gaps within the topic area under scrutiny. The analysis on these reports allows the subject matter to be put into a contemporary context. Chapter 4 consists of an analysis and critique of academic literature conducted by various authors and publishers. This part identifies other issues, ideas and competing theories related to children from single parent households and enables further arguments to be constructed. It also analyses the sociological data collection and analysis methods used to obtain data to form the studies on single parent households. Chapter 5 deals with an examination of the previous sociological theories devised around single parent families and also the contemporary ones. This analysis allows an insight to theorists opinions and explanations of the differences in educational attainment. Chapter 6 includes the addition of a comprehensive conclusion, compromising a brief summary of the research and independent conclusions related to the study are offered. This section allows an understanding of personal arguments and ideas made to contribute towards the concepts of the study and competing theories or interpretations. It also consists of a section that outlines the future work and study that can be implemented to develop the study of single parent families. Chapter 7, the last section contains a personal reflection on the engagement of the research conducted. It includes how and what has been learnt throughout the course of the study, as well as, how personal interests have been impacted and changed as a result of the research process and the completion of the study. Main Conclusions The critical review has drawn together the evidence on adolescents educational attainment from single parent family households. There is evidence to show that although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent families and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. The analysis has also exposed that family functioning and economic factors have a higher influence than the type of family structure on an adolescents educational success. Furthermore, various sociological theories have been devised on the matter of single parent families, which can be used in context with the topic in hand. Lastly, research indicates, the lack of educational success of adolescents being brought up in single parent families is not limited to one cause only; a lot of altering factors play apart. CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF REPORTS There are a number of reports published by governmental bodies, such as, the Institute of Education, that deal with research and statistics established around single parent families and education. This chapter compromises a critical analysis of 5 major reports published in the last 15 years, which are all acknowledged by governmental bodies. Causes of Single Parenthood Over the space of a single generation the number of people marrying has halved, the number divorcing has trebled and the proportion of children born outside marriage has quadrupled (Lewis, 2001; p.37). It can be suggested, that all of the above contribute to the factors related to the causes of single parenthood. The context of this statement has been assembled from data provided by the Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) from the 1970s to the year 2000. However Lewis (2001) fails to look at contemporary data and statistics around the subject matter, which could alter the statement he has made. National statistics actually declare that the number of marriages in England and Wales steadily rose between 2001 and 2004 (Office for National Statistics, 2010), therefore although the number of marriages may have halved over the space of a single generation (Lewis, 2001; p.37), Lewis (2001) does not look at the rise of marriages in certain periods and does not offer any rationalisation for such trends [Refer to Appendix 2 Statistics Graph; Page 48]. In 2006 in Great Britain, 25% of dependent children were found to be living in single parent households with little or no contact with the second parent (Mooney et al, 2009). This figure holds credible status as it was obtained from the National Office for Statistics, however Mooney et al (2009) are unsuccessful in explaining how little or no contact is determined. There is no thesis or evidence of chapters that attempt to make clear how they approached and justified their declaration made, therefore making it questionable. Lewis (2001), Mooney et al (2009), amongst others also offer alternative explanations to single parenthood that are recognised within the majority of the reports under analysis, which will be addressed throughout the course of this study. Effects of Single Parenthood The levels of single parenthood are continuously rising; the effect that this has on the adolescents living with a single parent is contested. Some argue there are no adverse consequences, whilst others suggest that there are clear implications for the adolescents, arguing; evidence indicates unequivocally that those children whose parents separate are at significantly greater risk than those whose parents remain together, for a wide range of adverse outcomes in social, psychological, and physical development (Pryor and Rodgers, 2001; p.73). These two positions offered are both backed up with evidence, firstly showing the consequences for adolescents, mainly pointing at the fact that there is a considerable difference in educational achievement between those individuals from single parent families and those from nuclear family structures[1]. This evidence is mainly shown through the comparison of statistical data; those who were brought up by single parents were almost twice as likely to lack formal qualifications (Kiernan, 1997; p.9). Again, the contradicting argument also uses similar procedures, such as statistical data to illustrate the evidence that argues individuals form single parent families are not negatively affected; the difference between children from intact and non-intact families is a small one, and the majority of children will not be adversely affected (Mooney et al, 2009; p.3). Although both of these grand claims provide evidence to back up their statements, they are not a 100 per cent warranted as gaps within their claims still remain. For example, Mooney et al (2009) acknowledge that there is a small difference between single parent and nuclear family structures and claim the majority of individuals from single parent families are not affected. However they fail to recognise the small proportion of individuals who are affected, forgetting to address the reasons to how and why only a minority of adolescents from single parent families suffer the alleged adverse consequences. Separation or Divorce It is argued that adolescents whose parents separate have the double probability of experiencing long-term negative outcomes in education than adolescents from nuclear family structures (Mooney et al, 2009). The long-term studies that have been conducted to show this include the analysis of statistical data throughout a certain period of time and longitudinal studies, monitoring adolescents from single parent households over a course of their lives. There is no specific definition of the long-term outcomes, and studies have taken place over a variety of periods, including, 5, 10 and 20 years. There is also no precise measurement of a negative outcome, they tend to be the general opinions of the researcher or author rather than a factor defined through research or study; there are various chapters throughout all the reports that constantly refer to the negative child outcomes following parental separation (Mooney et al, 2009; p.13), however there is no mentioning of the measurements u sed to define these negative outcomes. A variety of research studies have indicated that adolescents who witness the breakdown of their own parents marriage in comparison to those who have not, hold lower educational qualifications, lower part-time or full-time incomes and more expected to be unemployed in later life (Kiernan, 1997). This expectancy is reasonably vindicated as Kiernan (1997) uses various statistical data from England to compare the educational achievements and employment roles of adults aged 33 who had been raised by single parents to those who had not. From her study, she found that there were a lower percentage of adults who experienced their parents separation than those brought up in nuclear family structures to commit to further educational studies. Also, there was a higher percentage of adults brought up by single parents who were unemployed than those brought up by both parents (Kiernan, 1997). Although, she provides some statistical evidence to indicate those from single parent families possess lo w levels of educational attainment, Kiernan (1997) does not take into consideration the fact that her statistics show; there was a higher proportion of individuals brought up by single parents holding O-Level qualifications in comparison to those who lived in a nuclear family structure [Refer to Appendix 3 Table of Statistics; Page 49]. She fails to provide an explanation for this statistic and in a sense seems to ignore this odd occurrence. The ignorance of this statistic suggests Kiernan (1997) is judging and concluding in a manner that does not necessarily match the evidence, which may indicate towards a personal or professional agenda. This personal agenda may simply be stereotypical views of those from single parent families, which can include the expectancy of academic failure and low employment prospects. Also, teenage girls who have witnessed their parental divorce or separation have a higher probability than their peers to begin early sexual relations, to cohabit at early ages and commit to teenage pregnancies. To start early sexual relations and conceive children young is one reason why a vast percentage of adolescent girls from single parent families perform less well in education than those living in nuclear family structures. The stresses of sexual relationships and pregnancy can often leave very little or no time to focus on study, commonly resulting in teenage mothers leaving education early and gaining little qualifications (Kiernan, 1997). Although Kiernan (1997) makes such claims, she does not provide any evidence to justify them. There is no evidence of statistical data showing that teenage pregnancies are the result of being brought up by a single parent and no mention of any imperative measurements used to suggests such outcomes can occur; thus her explanations lack in v alidity and can be contested in numerous ways. Economical Factors One economical factor that is argued to be common in single parenthood is the issue of living in poverty. In comparison to nuclear families, single parents tend to be considerably financially worse and statistics show 70% of single parents live in poverty (Evans et al, 2004). This is an accredited statistic obtained from the Department of Work and Pensions, which gives an insight of the scale of financial difficulties faced by single parents. Poverty has been identified as one major factor that affects educational attainment at schools and used to explain the low educational performances of adolescents from single parent households, as a vast number of children living in single parent family structures are only supported by one parental income or through welfare benefits. In Britain in the 1990s, approximately 80% of single mothers relied on governmental benefits to support themselves and their children (Kiernan, 1997). Again, this statistic is credited and provides a sound context t o the argument being made, however it is not a contemporary piece of research. Today in modern Britain a lot of people are facing financial difficulties because of different factors that can affect educational attainment, regardless of the type of family structure an individual is from. For example, in the current financial climate and the issues of the recession, many people are finding it difficult to maintain jobs and fund their familys educational needs, such as, university tuition fees, college expenses, etc; therefore adolescents from all family structures may have a lower educational attainment. Consequently there are more individuals today relying on governmental benefits to support their financial needs; from the start of 2008, 800,000 individuals were claiming Job Seekers Allowance, then rose rapidly in 2009, where there was 1.5 million claimants (National Office for Statistics, 2010: Refer to Appendix 4 Statistics Article; Page 50). Thus, Kiernans (1997) examination on f inance does not give a valid insight to the contemporary issues affecting educational achievement. Also, Kiernan (1997) suggests that single parents do not have the financial support from the second parent without any suitable evidence. Conversely this is not necessarily true, if parents have separated or divorced, the second parent is obligated to contribute to the finance of his/her family if any dependent children are involved; therefore although some single parents may face financial strain, there are others who still receive financial help from their ex-partners. Financial difficulty increases the chances of other variables connected with negative outcomes for the adolescents, including; poor nutrition, inadequate housing, health issues and limited access to educational resources. Adolescents with poor nutrition will find it significantly difficult to concentrate at school during lessons, limiting their educational performances. Evidence shows a balanced diet and the consumption of adequate vitamins and nutrients can boost the concentration levels of pupils at school, making them more alert and attentive during class sessions (Welsh et all, 2004). This evidence offered is of widespread knowledge and supported by nutritional specialists, such as, the British Nutrition Foundation (Stanner et al, 2010). Poor nutrition can also lead to various long-term health problems, including Anorexia, Cardiovascular Disease, etc, which may require adolescents taking a lot of time off school compared to those not living in poverty, therefore, again, limiting their educational performances (Mooney et al, 2009). A viable argument is made here, however there is a lack of evidence to support the suggestion that these health problems is a definite explanation as to why adolescents from single parent families can do poorly in education. Health problems can lead to taking time off school, however there is no reasonable clarification to why it specifically affects those from single parent families; Anorexia and Cardiovascular Disease can affect any individual, not just those who lack a balanced diet and may be living in single parent families; the causes of Anorexia range from a variety of factors, including, the media, social pressure and genetics (Russell, 2007). Inadequate housing conditions may make it difficult for adolescents to concentrate and complete coursework at home when required, resulting in another limitation in educational attainment (Mooney et al, 2009). Another viable argument, however, again, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim; it is not sufficient enough to suggest inadequate housing only affects those of single parent families, move valid knowledge and research is required to support such claims. Furthermore, it is contested; limited funds can often neglect the extra requirements of educational resources and materials to help during courses. For example, single parents may not be able to afford home computers, books, sportswear, etc that assist success in schools. Without the access to these resources adolescents from single parents are at a disadvantage in educational attainment compared to those adolescents living in nuclear families, supported by both parental incomes, thus an explanation for the questionable differences in educational achievement (Mooney et al, 2009). Although this is an explanation, Mooney et al (2009) fail to acknowledge the initiatives and support available for all family structures to overcome barriers when accessing educational resources. For example, public libraries are available to borrow books instead of buying them, libraries also facilitate free access to computers and schools also provide support free access to educational materials. Therefore the claim that adolescents from single parents do not have the access to resources available in order to perform well in education is not credible and lacks knowledge of contemporary support. In addition, it is also argued, adolescents living with single parents may leave education early to gain employment to help with the financial circumstances, or work long shifts whilst still at school to fund their own wants and needs, which can ultimately result in low educational attainment. Low qualifications and an early entry into employment can increase the prospects of low occupational achievement, little income, unemployment and state dependency (Kiernan, 1997). This argument is supported with evidence, as Kiernan (1997) uses statistical data to show that a lot of adolescents form single parent families do enter early employment to assist their familys financial needs. However, she has no evidence to suggest that an early entry into employment can increase the chances of low occupational achievement, this is an assumption made, that without further education individuals cannot succeed in the labour market. However this is not necessarily accurate, there are individuals in the media who have excelled within the labour market without an education to college or degree level, for example, Sir Allen Sugar, a successful business entrepreneur (BBC, 2009). Although there is a certain lack of acknowledgement of various factors when arguing poverty is a major factor of adolescents academic failure from single parent families, there has been a study conducted of 2 nuclear families in America who experienced a substantial decrease in income. This identified that the financial pressure lead to increased depression in both parents, conflicts throughout the family, behaviour changes in the adolescents and a drop in their educational success in schools and in exams. (Conger et al, 1992). Therefore, there is some valid evidence to associate single parent poverty with educational success. Never the less, consideration must be given to the fact that educational failure in single parenthood is not only limited to financial strain. Social Factors The single parent family structure is frequently associated with social factors, such as a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact between adolescents and their non-residential parent. This can affect a teenagers educational attainment due to the lack of support from both parents to perform well in school (Kiernan, 1997). Although this statement is made, there is no substantial evidence or research conducted to support the argument. There is the assumption that teenagers will automatically have a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact with their second parent. However, this is may not be the case, parents after separation can still have daily contact with their children on a regular basis; thus the support from both parents to do well in education may not decline. Misleading conclusions are being made, which suggest the author may hold biased views on this subject matter. It can be argued, single parents providing childcare may also have limited time and energy they can dedicate to their children, particularly if longer hours of paid employment is necessary to maintain financial stability. These decreases in parental resources, for example, help with homework, support and attention they can offer to their children, can increase the possibility of educational failure (Kiernan, 1997). Although the long working hours may have an impact on parental time available, there is no verification that declares a lack of parental time has a definite effect on educational attainment. Kiernan (1997) also ignores social networks that can provide support with educational attainment, such as, family, friends, neighbours, relatives, etc. It has been argued by many that social networks and support is crucial for the development of individuals intellectually, emotionally and socially; strong networks allow the foundations to achieving success in academic and occupational careers (Hooyman and Kiak, 2008). Psychological Factors Amongst these social and economical explanations are psychological explanatory factors that attempt to clarify the educational differences between teenagers from single parent and nuclear family structures. It is argued that the notion of family stress during bereavement, divorce, separation, etc, can provide a vast amount of strain on the children, which can add onto the predominant stresses of educational attainment. A number of studies have exposed that parental conflict during separation can have a harmful impact on the adolescents well-being. This can result to lack of concentration during school class sessions, less motivation to complete designated assignments and a lack of class participation, which usually lead to academic failure (Kiernan, 1997). There is substantial evidence to suggest stress can be related to educational achievement and affect academic results obtained; for instance there have been various observational and longitudinal studies that have discovered trauma tic stress can lead to a decline in academic success (Hall, 2000). Whilst Kiernan (1997) takes into consideration the stresses of parental separation, she fails to acknowledge the relief some marital breakdowns can have; for example, one where the child or partner was suffering physical abuse. In this situation a positive outcome could occur in educational attainment rather than the negativities of academic failure. Also research suggests that the parental ability to recover from distress of bereavement, separation and divorce can affect the childrens ability to adapt to new changes. Effective communication and frequent contact between the adolescents and both the resident and non-resident parents are important in assisting teenagers to adjust and adapt to change. If change is not accepted and the adolescents do not adapt, studies have discovered that there is a higher possibility of poor educational outcomes for teenagers from separated families than those from intact ones. The distress teenagers may face fro

Crime and Punishment :: essays research papers fc

The Websters Dictionary defines degradation as a fall from higher to lower rank or degree(Websters, 205). Fyodor Dostoyevsky illustrates degradation of morals for several characters in Crime and Punishment. He links the quality of money or lack thereof to the their moral degradation to design complex characters. Dostoyevsky draws a picture of society that is similar to the society depicted in Victor Hugo’s Les Miserables. The poor become greedy and the rich become greedier. And, good moral decision making can be greatly overpowered by the need or want of more money.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The degradation of society and lack of money cause Raskolnikov to kill the greedy pawnbroker, Alyona Ivanovna and her sister Lizaveta. Raskolnikov believes that killing them for their money will be a great conquest for himself and society. After fighting with himself about whether or not he should commit the crime, he overhears someone talking about the same plan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hundreds, perhaps thousands of lives could be put on the right path, dozens of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  families rescued from poverty, from ruin, from collapse, from decay, from venereal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  wards of the hospitals-- all this with her money! Kill her, take her money, dedicate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  it to serving mankind, to the general welfare. Well --what do you think -- isn’t   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  this petty little crime effaced by thousands of good deeds? (63, part 1) Raskolnikov decides he must go against his good judgment and commit murder for the good of society and himself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dostoyevsky also takes the character of Raskolnikov to the opposite extreme. After his mother sends him money, he uses it to help out the Marmeladov family in an act of pure charity. He comes across Marmeladov injured by a carriage and without hesitation offers to help.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"I know him!† and he pushed all the way forward. â€Å"It’s the clerk, the retired titular   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  councilor, Marmeladov! He lives near here, in Kozel’s house....Somebody get a   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  doctor! I’ll pay. Here!† he fished money out of his pocket and showed it to the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  policeman. (170, part 2) Dostoyevsky is showing how Raskolnikov’s decision making is effected by money or lack thereof.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Svidrigailov is a character who was poor and in jail. He was bought by Marfa Perovna and lived a good life off of her money. Unlike Raskolnikov, Svidrigailov’s moral degradation becomes worse with his increase of wealth. He cheats on his wife, causing her to eventually kill herself, and gets a fifteen year old pregnant. He then admits to Raskolnikov that he was in love with his sister, Dunya, but now just wants to sleep with her. â€Å"Secondly, I fancy you won’t refuse me a little help in a certain project of mine that

Husbands Gender Ideology Essay -- Gender Roles, Women

In response to why women remain investing significantly more time in unpaid housework than men (see Shelton and John, 1996; Coltrane, 2000 for a thorough review) and specialised in types of housework, empirical work done by researchers in economics background focuses on relative resource approach that builds on Becker’s model of exchange. Nevertheless, the economic approach is far from satisfactory in explaining why married women who are financially independent perform more housework than their spouses. This brings the argument of gender ideology from the perspective of sociologists. The allocation of time among family members in the work that needs to be done, both in the market and in the household, has important implications for the household’s consumption possibilities. Extending the benefits of labour specialisation that documented in the standard economics textbook, Becker (1985, 1991) suggests that multiperson household often find it beneficial to specialise to some extent in the activities that they undertake, based on comparative advantage. A salient example of such intrahousehold specialisation is married men specialised in market work and married women in household production. This historically division of labour within households is arranged on the basis that women accumulate less human capital. Given women’s relatively lower opportunity cost in work outside the home as compared to men, household members would arrange spouses’ labour in a manner that women should allocate more time to household labour and less to market work in or der to yield a maximum utility for the family. However, women nowadays have acquired as much human capital as men be it in education, labour market experience, occupational attainme... ...economic dependence in housework performed between husband and wife, Greenstein (2000) also found a ‘U’ shaped pattern for women, in which breadwinner wives undertake a greater share of housework than their husbands and a reversed ‘U’ shaped for economically dependent husbands. However, Greenstein emphasise the process of deviance neutralisation instead of gender display in the division of housework. The author suggests that to neutralise a nonnormative provider role of women in the family, both husband and wife may restore to a traditional attitude to make up for gender deviance even if the relative resource approach suggests that the husband should share far more housework. With these theories and fact of the past as the backgorund, we turn our attention to the married couples in Kuching city to account for the asymmetrical distribution of household labour.

Chaucers Canterbury Tales - Enslavement and Freedom in the Knights Ta

Enslavement and Freedom in the Knight's Tale  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Knight's Tale, Palamon and Arcite's lives are filled with adversity  and enslavement .   Not only do they live in   physical imprisonment, bound as prisoners of war in a tower, but they fall into Love's imprisonment, which leads them to suffer the decrees of cruel classical gods .   Cooper writes that there "can be no moral or metaphysical justice in the different fates that befall them; yet one dies wretchedly wounded, while the other lives out his life with Emily 'with alle blisse' " (76). One might compare their destinies with that of Jacob and Esau: one is blessed, and the other cursed in order that the providence of God might stand . This essay will argue (1) that even though Palamon and Arcite are enslaved as prisoners of war, prisoners of love, and prisoners of Saturn's decree, both knights are still responsible for their actions, and (2) that Arcite's death brings unity and restores order in Athens.    Palamon and Arcite are introduced into the tale as the only two surviving knights in Creon's army.   Once found by the scavengers, they are brought before Theseus and he sends them to "dwellen in prisoun/Perpetuelly" (1023-4). It is through their physical imprisonment in the "chembre an heigh" (1065) that leads them to 6xsee Emily and to fall into Love's imprisonment.   But Love's imprisonment works on Palamon and Arcite in different ways.   Arcite "falls in love with her irresistibly, by natural necessity   . . .   [whereas for Palamon, the] love of Emelye is a matter of choice rather than nature, as is shown by his repeated demand that Arcite simply stop loving her (1142-43, 1593-95, 1731)" (Roney 62).   But even though their view of love is different, they ar... ...    Elbow, Peter. "How Chaucer Transcends Oppositions in the Knight's Tale." Chaucer Review. Vol. 7. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1972.    Finalyson, John. "The Knight's Tale: The Dialogue Of Romance, Epic, And   Philosophy." Chaucer Review. Vol. 27. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1992.    Frost, William. "An Interpretation of Chaucer's Knight's Tale." Chaucer Criticism. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard Schoeck. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1960.    Miller, Robert. Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.    Roney, Lois. Chaucer's Knight's Tale and Theories of Scholastic Psychology.  Ã‚   Tampa: University of South Florida Press, 1990.    Spearing, A.C. The Knight's Tale. London: Cambridge University Press, 1966.    Chaucer's Canterbury Tales - Enslavement and Freedom in the Knight's Ta Enslavement and Freedom in the Knight's Tale  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Knight's Tale, Palamon and Arcite's lives are filled with adversity  and enslavement .   Not only do they live in   physical imprisonment, bound as prisoners of war in a tower, but they fall into Love's imprisonment, which leads them to suffer the decrees of cruel classical gods .   Cooper writes that there "can be no moral or metaphysical justice in the different fates that befall them; yet one dies wretchedly wounded, while the other lives out his life with Emily 'with alle blisse' " (76). One might compare their destinies with that of Jacob and Esau: one is blessed, and the other cursed in order that the providence of God might stand . This essay will argue (1) that even though Palamon and Arcite are enslaved as prisoners of war, prisoners of love, and prisoners of Saturn's decree, both knights are still responsible for their actions, and (2) that Arcite's death brings unity and restores order in Athens.    Palamon and Arcite are introduced into the tale as the only two surviving knights in Creon's army.   Once found by the scavengers, they are brought before Theseus and he sends them to "dwellen in prisoun/Perpetuelly" (1023-4). It is through their physical imprisonment in the "chembre an heigh" (1065) that leads them to 6xsee Emily and to fall into Love's imprisonment.   But Love's imprisonment works on Palamon and Arcite in different ways.   Arcite "falls in love with her irresistibly, by natural necessity   . . .   [whereas for Palamon, the] love of Emelye is a matter of choice rather than nature, as is shown by his repeated demand that Arcite simply stop loving her (1142-43, 1593-95, 1731)" (Roney 62).   But even though their view of love is different, they ar... ...    Elbow, Peter. "How Chaucer Transcends Oppositions in the Knight's Tale." Chaucer Review. Vol. 7. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1972.    Finalyson, John. "The Knight's Tale: The Dialogue Of Romance, Epic, And   Philosophy." Chaucer Review. Vol. 27. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1992.    Frost, William. "An Interpretation of Chaucer's Knight's Tale." Chaucer Criticism. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard Schoeck. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1960.    Miller, Robert. Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.    Roney, Lois. Chaucer's Knight's Tale and Theories of Scholastic Psychology.  Ã‚   Tampa: University of South Florida Press, 1990.    Spearing, A.C. The Knight's Tale. London: Cambridge University Press, 1966.   

An Analysis of William Shakespeare’s Othello Essay

In the play Othello, the characters depend only on their eyes, and with that, they jump to major conclusions. Many times in life we often take things for what we see them as or what they appear to be instead of looking to see what something or someone really is. Reality is often disguised by appearance. The tragic plot of Othello hinges on the ability of the villain, Iago, to mislead other characters, particularly Roderigo and Othello, by encouraging them to misinterpret what they see. Through Iago’s manipulation of Roderigo, treachery towards Othello, and Desdemona’s deception towards her father, Shakespeare demonstrates that appearance is not always reality. Although Iago made it look as if him and Roderigo were partners in crime, it turns out Roderigo was just being manipulated. Roderigo is one of the many characters who are duped into believing Iago is actually trying to help him. He convinces Roderigo to to keep his hopes up for Desdemona by saying, â€Å"It cannot be that Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor–put money in thy purse–nor he his to her . . . â€Å"(1. 3. 338-340). Iago is convincing Roderigo that the love between Othello and Desdemona cannot last much longer so he should just wait and everything will work out. â€Å"Honest† Iago, who only wished to further his plan of revenge on Othello, lied to Roderigo who had come to his â€Å"friend† for help. Roderigo had left after their conversation believing his good friend was helping him. Later in the play, Iago also convinces Roderigo that Desdemona loves Cassio. Iago subsequently manipulates Roderigo’s jealousy and resentment towards Cassio and Roderigo helps remove Cassio of his lieutenancy. Roderigo is merely a puppet to Iago’s treacherous plot to eliminate Cassio. To Othello, it may seem that Iago is an honest and trustworthy friend, but it turns out he is the opposite. Virtue! a fig! ’tis in ourselves that we are thus†¦ and corrigible authority of this lies in our wills. (1. 3. 5). When Iago makes an analogy between gardening and exercising free will, we’re reminded of the way that Iago is the ultimate master gardener, so to speak. Part of what makes him such a brilliant manipulator of Othello is his ability to plant the seeds of doubt and jealousy in Othello’s mind. Iago is only doing this to serve his own purposes so that is plan will work out in the end. Iago is able to manipulate people into falling for the traps he sets. This misplaced trust is what leads Othello to his downfall. Desdemona is continuously distrusted by those who love and trust her most, especially Brabanito. Brabantio refuses to believe Desdemona loves Othello. Brabantio thinks Othello used witchcraft to woo Desdemona. Desdemona elopes with Othello without her father’s permission. Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see: She has deceived her father, and may thee. (1. 3. 10). Brabantio suggests that, because Desdemona deceived her father when she eloped with Othello, Desdemona will likely deceive her husband. Desdemona, as we know, is completely faithful to Othello. Desdemona deceives her father in order to be with Othello. All of this manipulation, treachery, and deceit is what leads each character to their own downfall. Not only are looks deceiving, but looks alone, only cause trouble, trouble that is sometimes unfixable. People today, just like those in the Shakespearean period, jump to conclusions just by seeing. It is important to get all the facts before something tragic happens just like in Othello. Seeing isn’t always believing.

Doctor Zhivago

http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/562734/Stalinism http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Doctor_Zhivago Stalinism in Russia The novel Doctor Zhivago, although it contains passages written in the 1910s and 1920s, was not completed until 1956. The novel was submitted to the literary journal Novy Mir. However, the editors declined Pasternak's novel because of its embedded rejection of socialist realism. The author, much like Zhivago in the story, showed more concern for the interests of individuals than for the welfare of the social order.Soviet censors interpreted some passages as anti-communist and more idealistic. They were also infuriated by Pasternak's understated disparagement of Stalinism and his references to the Gulag. In 1957, an Italian publisher, Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, organized for the novel to be smuggled out of the Soviet Union by Isaiah Berlin. Much to the Soviet Union’s dismay, Feltrinelli simultaneously published copies in both Russian and in Italian. Deman d for Doctor Zhivago was so great Feltrinelli was able to authorize translation rights into eighteen different languages long before the novel's publication.The Communist Party of Italy debarred Feltrinelli from their association in retribution for his role in the publication of a novel they felt was vital for communism. On the other hand, the novel topped international bestseller lists, the British MI6 and the American CIA commenced an operation to ensure Doctor Zhivago was correctly submitted to the Nobel Committee. It was known that a Nobel Prize for Boris Pasternak would seriously damage the international integrity of the Soviet Union.In result to this, British and American operatives seized and photographed a manuscript of the novel and privately printed a small number of books in the Russian language. These were submitted to the Nobel Committee's surprised judges just ahead of the deadline. The fictional story, Doctor Zhivago, is about a physician and poet named Doctor Yuri Zh ivago, who lives during the first half of the 20th century in Russia. In this story, Yuri Zhivago’s brother, Yevgraf, a Russian general, relays the story of his brother Yuri to a teen girl, Tonya Komarovskaya.Yevgraf believes Tonya is Yuri’s daughter, who was inadvertently abandoned when she was a small child. He first asks Tonya if she can recall anything about her mother. When she said she could not remember he tries to convince her by starting at the beginning of Yuri’s story. To understand Yuri’s life tale and how it relates to Stalinism, one must know the major themes of the novel; loneliness, companionship, individuality, community, corruption and revolution. Yuri’s story begins when he was a small child, his mother died and he had been taken in by the Gromekos, who were family friends.With the loss of his mother, Yuri, must have felt alone until he began to develop a relationship with the Gromeko’s daughter, Tonya. As Yuri and Tonya g rew up, it was anticipated they would marry. When they finally married, Yuri needed to leave to help the wounded soldiers in the Russian Civil War. There he met Laura, a woman who had volunteered for the war so she could find her husband, Pasha. She became a nurse, assisting Yuri with the injured. They began to build a relationship during their time together, though it started friendly, it soon became romantic.About the time they were going to be leaving for home they made a promise to each other, promising that they will not lie about their â€Å"friendship. † The film shows a vase of sunflowers as Laura and the soldiers leave Zhivago behind. These flowers are a symbol of the relationship Yuri had with Laura; the flowers were in full bloom when Laura was there but when she departed they began to wilt, like Yuri’s heart. When Yuri’s arrived at the Gromeko’s house, also his home, there were other people living in the large house.These people were told to l ive there by the Soviet government because the house was too big for just the Gromeko family. During his time back in his â€Å"own† home he is asked, by a Soviet official, to go in secret to the home of a dying man. Zhivago goes and takes a look at the man and determines the cause of his illness. He says the cause of the man’s illness is something they don’t have in Russia, starvation. When he says this to the official he says it in such a way that shows the communist are either blind for they don’t care. Zhivago is an idealist and therefore does not like the Communists and in return his behavior is noticed.One night when Yuri comes home he sees that Tonya had put out the fire in their home because they did not have enough fuel. To solve their fuel problems he goes outside and takes wood from a nearby fence. Watching from a distance is Yevgraf, who decides not to arrest his brother even though he had arrested better men for lesser crimes. Instead he foll ows his brother back to his home. He comes into the house and this is how Yuri meets his brother. Before Yevgraf leaves he tells Yuri, the government does not like his poetry because it shows individuality. Yevgraff warns them, telling them they should leave Moscow.Yuri and his family get on a train to leave Moscow and go to Varykino. The people on the train are all poor and quite but one of the men was very vocal in his disapproval of revolution. Before the train left a Communist soldier was telling the people on the train how they were on the train and that the work they would be asked to do was all voluntary. The vocal man shouted at him saying it was a lie. Later in the train ride, they come to a stop as Strelnikov’s train comes past theirs. Strelikov, or Pasha, was an idealist before the Civil War, but he soon became one of the communists.Yuri get off of his train while they are stopped and he runs through the wood and comes across the Strelnikov train. The Red Army sold iers take him to Pasha, where the two men finally meet. Yuri informs Pasha that Laura is still alive and how it was that he and Laura had met. He also said she was in Yuriatin. What neither of the two men knew was that Laura was being watched. The people that were watching, the White Army, Laura were hoping Strelnikov would come go home to his wife, they wanted to kill him. Pasha was killed when he was found just outside of Yuriatin.Victor Kamarovsky found Laura and Yuri in Yuri’s old home, he told them he had a train that would take them out of Russia where they would be safe. At first neither Yuri would not go because he did not want to leave Russia and Laura would not leave without Yuri. When Victor told Yuri what happened to Pasha Yuri decided he would go for Laura’s sake. Laura and her daughter took the same slay as Victor but there was no room for Yuri. He told Laura he would follow on there slay and he would meet up at the train. Before they leave Yuri gave Laur a the Balalaika. This was a sign that Yuri had no intentions of leaving Russia.On the train Laura admits to Victor she is caring Yuri’s baby. This child is later inadvertently abandoned by Victor. The Russian government was corrupted; on one hand they had the Bolsheviks who were communist and tried to â€Å"sugar coat† the political and economical faults, such as, starvation, poverty and homelessness. While on the other hand, there was the White Army, who were a democratic party wanting to reveal the corruption for what it was. This split in the government led to the Russian Civil War. In the end the Bolsheviks won the war and took hold of the government.When power was given to the Bolsheviks they ruled with a method created by Joseph Stalin. Stalinism is the technique used by Joseph Stalin, who was part of the Soviet Communist Party and was the state leader from 1929 until he died in 1953. Stalinism is accompanied with an establishment of terror and totalitarian rule. In a party dominated by intellectuals and rhetoricians, Stalin stood for an ideal approach to revolution, barren of ideological sentiment. Once power was given to the Bolshevik, the party leadership happily left Stalin the tasks involving the boring details of party and state administration.Yuri’s story relays what life was like under Stalin’s communist rule. The solitude the people of Russia felt, the need for individuality and the corruption they saw in the government; these were the things the communists were trying to hide. The communist wanted the people to see companionship with their community and that they needed the revolution. Pasternak’s novel was an idealist’s point of view of the Russian government and was everything the Bolsheviks did not want the public to read. It showed how the Bolsheviks were trying to control the emotions and personalities of the people.